MONOGRAPH
ORTHODOX CHURCHES IN KOSOVO AND NORTH MACEDONIA
History, Jurisdiction, and Contemporary Debate
Author: Flamur Buçpapaj
FOREWORD
This monograph examines the historical development of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia, analyzing their trajectory from early Christianity to the contemporary period. The approach is both historical and critical, avoiding one-sided interpretations and relying on the structural evolution of religious institutions in the Balkans.
CHAPTER I – EARLY CHRISTIANITY
Christianity in the Illyrian-Balkan region developed within the framework of the Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire. Its spread was facilitated by road and urban networks, where cities such as Ulpiana, Scupi, and Dyrrachium became early centers of Christian life.
During this period, no national division of the Church existed. Its organization was universal and connected to the administrative structures of the empire. Religion was the primary identity, not ethnic affiliation. This is essential to understand, as it is not possible to speak of national ownership over churches in this historical phase.
CHAPTER II – THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE FORMATION OF ORTHODOX CHURCHES
With the development of the Middle Ages and the consolidation of the first Balkan states, a new ecclesiastical structure emerged. The autocephaly of the Serbian Orthodox Church marked a turning point in the religious organization of the region.
In Kosovo, many churches and monasteries were built, which became spiritual, cultural, and administrative centers. The role of the Patriarchate of Peć was central in organizing Orthodox ecclesiastical life.
However, these structures must be understood as part of a medieval political system in which religion and power were closely intertwined, rather than as the ethnic property of a single people.
CHAPTER III – THE OTTOMAN PERIOD
With the arrival of the Ottoman Empire, the millet system was established, organizing religious communities with limited autonomy. Orthodox churches continued to exist, but within a new political and social context.
The Patriarchate of Peć played an important role for a time, but was later abolished. During this period, major demographic and religious transformations occurred, reshaping the structure of the region.
The Church was no longer a dominant institution, but rather a structure that survived within a new imperial system.
CHAPTER IV – NATIONALISM AND MODERN STATES
The 19th and 20th centuries brought Balkan nationalism, in which religion became closely linked to national identity. The Serbian Orthodox Church became part of the Serbian state-building project.
In North Macedonia, a process developed that led to the creation of the Macedonian Orthodox Church, reflecting national divisions and aspirations.
During this period, churches transformed from religious institutions into political and identity symbols.
CHAPTER V – THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
After the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the issue of Orthodox churches became part of international politics and cultural heritage law.
Some monuments in Kosovo were placed under UNESCO protection, gaining universal status.
Today, a complex system exists in which the state, the Church, and international organizations intersect.
CHAPTER VI – CRITICAL ANALYSIS
The analysis shows that there is no direct line of ownership over Orthodox churches. They are the result of long and intertwined historical processes.
Historians such as John V. A. Fine and Mark Mazower emphasize that nationalism has influenced the interpretation of history.
Therefore, any accurate approach must be critical, balanced, and based on sources.
Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia are the product of a multi-layered history that includes Roman, Byzantine, medieval, Ottoman, and modern periods.
They cannot be exclusively identified with a single nation but represent a shared historical and cultural heritage of the region.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fine, John V. A. – The Early Medieval Balkans
Fine, John V. A. – The Late Medieval Balkans
Mazower, Mark – The Balkans: A Short History
Malcolm, Noel – Kosovo: A Short History
Ostrogorsky, George – History of the Byzantine State
Jelavich, Barbara – History of the Balkans
Hupchick, Dennis – The Balkans from Constantinople to Communism
CHAPTER I
EARLY CHRISTIANITY IN THE ILLYRIAN-BALKAN REGION
Christianity in the Illyrian-Balkan region represents one of the earliest phases of the spread of this religion in Southeast Europe and is closely connected to the political, cultural, and administrative developments of the Roman Empire. In this context, the present-day territory of Kosovo and North Macedonia was an integral part of a structured imperial system, where urban networks and road infrastructure created favorable conditions for the spread of new religious ideas. The spread of Christianity was not an isolated process, but a development closely linked to… …the movement of people, trade, and interurban communication, where major routes such as the Via Egnatia played a fundamental role in connecting East and West.
In this context, cities such as Dyrrachium, Scupi, and Ulpiana became important centers of early Christian life. These centers were not only administrative points, but also spaces where organized religious communities were formed and where the first ecclesiastical structures were built. The spread of Christianity in these areas should not be seen as an immediate and uniform process, but rather as a gradual development that moved from a phase of persecution to one of institutionalization, especially after its recognition by Roman imperial authorities.
Ecclesiastical organization during this period was characterized by a diocesan structure that reflected the administrative divisions of the empire. Bishops emerged as key figures in leading Christian communities, creating a direct link between religious and administrative authority. After the division of the Roman Empire, these territories came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire, which contributed to the consolidation of the Orthodox tradition and to the further development of church institutions.
An essential aspect of this period is the multilingual and multicultural character of religious life. The liturgy was conducted mainly in Greek and Latin, while local communities preserved elements of their own cultures. This cultural and linguistic pluralism demonstrates that Christianity was not tied to a single ethnic identity, but represented a universal phenomenon that transcended local affiliations. In this sense, religious identity was the dominant factor, while ethnic divisions, in the form known today, did not yet exist.
The role of cities in the development of Christianity was decisive. In these centers, the first basilicas were built, liturgical practices developed, and ecclesiastical elites were formed. Archaeological evidence from Ulpiana and Scupi indicates a stable presence of Christian communities that had reached a considerable level of organization and influence. These findings include structural remains, liturgical objects, and inscriptions that confirm the continuity of religious life in these areas.
A central issue for historical analysis is the relationship between religion and identity. In the period of early Christianity, it is not possible to speak of national churches in the modern sense of the term. As John V. A. Fine emphasizes, the ecclesiastical structures of this time did not reflect ethnic divisions but functioned on administrative and theological bases. This fact is essential for understanding that contemporary claims of exclusive ownership over churches cannot be retroactively projected onto this period.
Christianity in the Illyrian-Balkan region created an important cultural and spiritual continuity that survived major political changes. The transition from the Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire did not interrupt this continuity; on the contrary, it strengthened it through institutionalization and better organization of ecclesiastical life. This continuity was reflected in architecture, art, and religious practice, creating a tradition that would influence later medieval developments.
However, the analysis of this period faces significant limitations due to the lack of direct sources. Historians rely mainly on archaeological evidence and later sources, which requires a critical and cautious approach to interpretation. This means that every conclusion should be considered as part of an interpretative process rather than an absolute truth.
In conclusion, early Christianity in the Illyrian-Balkan region demonstrates an early and stable presence of this religion, which developed within a multicultural and multiethnic context. Its organization was not linked to national identities, but to universal administrative and religious structures. This historical reality provides an important foundation for understanding later developments and for critically analyzing modern claims regarding the ownership of Orthodox churches in the region.
CHAPTER II
THE FORMATION OF THE SERBIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH AND THE MIDDLE AGES
Developments in the medieval Balkans mark a new phase in the history of Orthodox churches, where for the first time a clearer connection emerges between religious organization and political structures. In this context, the formation of the medieval Serbian state and the institutionalization of the Serbian Orthodox Church represent a key moment for understanding the role of churches in the territory of Kosovo and beyond. This development did not occur in a historical vacuum, but in a space where the influence of the Byzantine Empire remained strong and where the traditions of early Christianity were still present.
The autocephaly of the Serbian Orthodox Church, closely linked to the figure of Saint Sava, represents an important step toward the creation of an independent religious institution, which had not only a spiritual function but also a political and cultural role. Its recognition by the Patriarchate of Constantinople granted it international legitimacy and placed it on an equal footing with other Orthodox churches of the time. In this way, religion became an important element in state consolidation and the construction of political identity.
In the territory of Kosovo, this process materialized through the construction of an extensive network of monasteries and churches, which served as centers of religious and cultural life. Such monuments were not only places of worship, but also institutions that produced knowledge, preserved manuscripts, and formed the spiritual elite. The role of the Patriarchate of Peć was particularly important in this regard, as it became the main center of ecclesiastical administration and a symbol of the continuity of Orthodox authority in the region.
However, the construction of these monuments and the expansion of ecclesiastical jurisdiction must be understood within the context of the political power of the time. Medieval rulers used the construction of churches as a form of legitimacy, linking their earthly authority with divine authority. This practice was widespread throughout the medieval world and was not exclusive to any single people. In this sense, the churches built in Kosovo during this period are both products of religious devotion and of political strategy.
An important aspect often overlooked in contemporary debates is the ethnic and cultural reality of the territory. The Middle Ages were not characterized by ethnic homogeneity, but by an interweaving of different communities coexisting in the same space. The presence of these communities and the continuity of earlier traditions show that the identity of the region was far more complex than presented in nationalist interpretations. As Noel Malcolm notes, the presence of monuments built by a particular authority does not exclude the existence of other populations and their traditions within the same territory.
During this period, the Church was not only a religious institution, but also an economic and social factor. It owned property, administered land, and exercised direct influence on the daily life of the population. This expanded role made it an important actor in the medieval power structure, closely linking it to the interests of the state. Consequently, jurisdiction over churches was not merely a spiritual matter, but also one of political and economic control.
However, it should be emphasized that this development does not represent an absolute “beginning” of the history of churches in the region. Rather, it is a new phase within a longer historical continuity, which begins with early Christianity and continues through various cultural and political influences. This continuity is essential for understanding that churches are not……cannot be simply identified with a single period or a single authority.
Another important element is the way in which the historical sources of this period should be interpreted. Medieval chronicles and ecclesiastical documents often reflect the perspective of the authorities of the time and do not always provide a complete picture of social reality. This requires a critical approach on the part of the researcher, who must take into account the context in which these sources were produced and their limitations.
In conclusion, the formation of the Serbian Orthodox Church and the developments of the Middle Ages in Kosovo represent an important phase in the history of the region, where religion and politics intertwine in a complex manner. The churches built during this period are evidence of this interconnection and cannot be understood outside the context of the power that produced them. They do not represent a simple historical ownership, but a complex reality that requires careful and balanced analysis.
CHAPTER III
THE OTTOMAN PERIOD AND RELIGIOUS TRANSFORMATIONS
The entry of the Ottoman Empire into the Balkan region at the end of the Middle Ages marked a profound turning point in the political, social, and religious organization of the region. This change was not merely a replacement of power, but a structural transformation that directly affected the functioning of religious institutions, including Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia. Unlike previous systems, Ottoman administration was not based on ethnic affiliation, but on religious organization, making religion a fundamental category of the legal and administrative order.
Within this framework, the system known as the millet developed, organizing communities on the basis of religion and granting them a certain level of autonomy in internal affairs. For the Orthodox community, this system represented a way to preserve religious identity and institutional structures, albeit under the supervision of Ottoman authority. Within this organization, the role of institutions such as the Patriarchate of Peć was crucial for the continuity of ecclesiastical life in the region.
The Patriarchate of Peć, restored as an institution in the 16th century, became an important center for the organization of Orthodoxy in the Western Balkans. It served as an intermediary between Orthodox communities and Ottoman authority, ensuring a degree of autonomy in the administration of religious and cultural matters. However, this autonomy was limited and dependent on political stability and the interests of central власти, which was reflected in its abolition in 1766.
One of the most important developments of this period was the demographic and religious transformation of the region, linked to the process of conversion to Islam. This process was not uniform and cannot be reduced to a single explanatory model. It involved economic, social, and political factors, including fiscal benefits, social mobility, and integration into new power structures. As a result, a significant portion of the Albanian population converted to Islam, substantially changing the religious composition of the region.
This change had direct consequences for the functioning of Orthodox churches. In areas where the Orthodox community declined, the role of churches was reduced and their activity diminished. However, in other areas they continued to function as important spiritual and cultural centers. This situation created a fragmented reality, where the presence and importance of churches varied from one region to another.
From a legal perspective, the Ottoman period did not produce a concept of religious ownership in the modern sense. Churches and monasteries were considered part of the religious order of the community and functioned within the framework of the millet system. This means that there was no formal transfer of ownership from one community to another, but rather a change in use and in administrative structure. This distinction is essential for understanding the misinterpretations that often appear in contemporary debates.
In addition to their religious role, Orthodox institutions continued to play a cultural and educational function. They preserved writing traditions, copied manuscripts, and contributed to maintaining religious identity in a changed political environment. However, this role was more limited compared to the medieval period, due to new conditions and the different priorities of Ottoman власти.
Another important element is the relationship between religious communities. The Ottoman system created a form of coexistence which, although not equal, allowed the parallel existence of different religions. This coexistence influenced how communities perceived one another and shaped the development of social and economic relations among them.
The interpretation of this period requires particular care due to the complexity and nature of the sources. Ottoman documents, church chronicles, and travelers’ accounts provide valuable information, but are often partial and conditioned by the perspectives of their authors. This requires a critical and comparative approach that takes into account the historical context and the limitations of the sources.
In conclusion, the Ottoman period represents a phase of profound transformation for Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia. This transformation was not a complete break in historical continuity, but a reshaping of it under new political and social conditions. Churches continued to exist and function, but in a changed role and within a new context that would influence later developments up to the modern period.
CHAPTER IV
NATIONALISM AND ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION IN THE 19TH–20TH CENTURIES
The 19th century represents a period of profound transformations in the Balkans, when the traditional structures of the Ottoman Empire began to weaken and were gradually replaced by nationalist movements and state-building projects. In this new historical context, religion and religious institutions acquired a new dimension, transforming from spiritual structures into important instruments of national identity formation. This development directly affected the status and jurisdiction of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia.
With the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, Orthodox Christian communities increasingly began to organize around national ideas, linking religion with ethnic identity. This process was reflected in efforts to create national churches and to detach from traditional ecclesiastical authorities perceived as foreign or connected to old imperial structures. In this way, the Church became one of the main pillars of national mobilization and the legitimization of political projects.
In the case of the Serbian state, this process materialized through the strengthening of the role of the Serbian Orthodox Church as a national institution that supported and reinforced Serbian identity. This church was no longer merely a religious organization, but also a political and cultural actor contributing to state consolidation and the expansion of its influence. After 1912, when Kosovo was incorporated into the territory of the Serbian state, this role became even more evident, as control over Orthodox churches in this region was institutionalized and supported by state structures.
This process represents a fundamental shift from previous periods, as for the first time jurisdiction over churches was formalized… …clearly within the framework of a nation-state. This means that control over these institutions was no longer simply the result of historical developments or religious tradition, but also of political and legal decisions reflecting state interests. In this sense, the ownership and administration of churches began to take on a legal dimension that would have significant consequences for later debates.
At the same time, in the territory of North Macedonia, a similar process developed, but with different dynamics. The creation of the Macedonian Orthodox Church represented an effort to build a religious identity linked to Macedonian national identity and to challenge the jurisdiction of the Serbian Orthodox Church. This development led to a prolonged canonical and institutional conflict, reflecting the tension between traditional ecclesiastical authority and national aspirations.
An important element of this period is the way religion was instrumentalized for political purposes. Churches were no longer merely places of worship, but also symbols of sovereignty and national identity. This made them objects of contestation and rivalry, where control over a religious site was often interpreted as proof of historical rights over a given territory. This interpretation, however, often ignores historical complexity and the fact that these sites are the product of centuries-long processes.
From a legal perspective, the 20th century marked a further formalization of ownership and jurisdiction over churches. State laws and international agreements began to define their status more clearly, creating a legal foundation that continues to influence the present day. This formalization further complicates the issue of belonging, as it is not only linked to history, but also to law and international relations.
Interpreting this period requires a critical approach that takes into account the interplay of historical, political, and legal factors. Narratives that present this process as a linear and one-sided continuity fail to reflect the complexity of reality. As Mark Mazower points out, Balkan nationalisms have often reconstructed the past to serve present needs, creating interpretations that do not always align with historical facts.
In conclusion, the period of nationalism and the formation of modern states represents a key moment in the transformation of the role and jurisdiction of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia. This period marks the transition from a religious organization based on tradition and imperial structures to a system in which religion and the Church are closely linked to the state and national identity. This transformation is essential for understanding contemporary debates and for critically analyzing claims regarding the ownership of these religious sites.
CHAPTER V
THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD AND INTERNATIONAL STATUS
The end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century represent a new and fundamentally different phase in the history of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia, in which the historical dimension is directly intertwined with international political developments and modern concepts of cultural heritage and international law. The dissolution of Yugoslavia created a new political reality, where state borders, national identities, and religious jurisdictions were profoundly and often conflictually reconfigured.
In this context, Kosovo became one of the most sensitive areas of these transformations. The conflict of the 1990s and its aftermath directly affected the status of religious institutions and their perception as part of identity and cultural heritage. Orthodox churches in Kosovo, which had historically been linked to the structures of the Serbian Orthodox Church, were placed at the center of political and international debates on heritage and sovereignty.
A new element in this period is the intervention of international mechanisms for the protection of cultural heritage. Some of the most important religious sites in Kosovo were included on the UNESCO list, being recognized as assets of universal value. This development partially shifts the debate from a national issue to an international one, granting these monuments a status that transcends the boundaries of a single state.
However, this new status has not eliminated conflicts over ownership and administration of these sites. On the contrary, it has created a complex situation in which three different levels of authority intersect: state, religious, and international. On the one hand, the institutions of Kosovo claim sovereignty over the territory and, consequently, over the cultural heritage within it. On the other hand, the Serbian Orthodox Church continues to exercise religious jurisdiction and administer these sites based on historical tradition and existing agreements.
This situation reflects an ongoing tension between the concept of state sovereignty and that of religious autonomy. In practice, this means that Orthodox churches in Kosovo operate under a special legal regime, where their protection is guaranteed by specific laws and the presence of international mechanisms. This regime aims to ensure their preservation as cultural monuments while avoiding their direct politicization, although in reality they continue to remain part of political discourse.
In North Macedonia, developments have followed a somewhat different but equally complex path. The issue of ecclesiastical jurisdiction has been closely linked to the status of the Macedonian Orthodox Church and its relations with the Serbian Orthodox Church. The conflict over the recognition of autocephaly has had not only a religious dimension but also a political one, reflecting internal tensions and aspirations for national affirmation. Partial solutions reached in recent years indicate a trend toward normalization, but also the persistence of challenges.
An important aspect of the contemporary period is also the way religious heritage is perceived by society. Orthodox churches are no longer only places of worship, but also cultural, touristic, and historical monuments. This transformation of their function places them in a broader context, where their value is not linked only to a specific community, but to society as a whole and to the international community.
However, this expansion in the meaning of heritage does not automatically resolve the issue of ownership. On the contrary, it may create new tensions, as different parties may have different interpretations of history and of the right to administration. In this sense, the debate over Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia remains an open issue, requiring a balanced approach grounded in clear legal and historical principles.
The interpretation of this period must take into account not only historical developments but also the context of international law and global politics. The role of international organizations, agreements between states, and standards for the protection of cultural heritage are factors that directly influence the status of these sites. This makes the analysis more complex, but also more necessary for understanding current realities.
In conclusion, the contemporary period represents a phase in which history, politics, and international law are inseparably intertwined. Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia have become not only objects of cultural heritage, but also symbols of identity and sovereignty. Understanding this reality requires a thorough and balanced analysis that avoids simplifications and takes into account the complexity of both historical and contemporary developments. CHAPTER VI
CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND HISTORICAL REASSESSMENT
The analysis of the affiliation of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia requires an approach that goes beyond the simplified and often politicized narratives that dominate public discourse. This chapter aims to critically reassess the main claims related to this issue by placing them within a broader historical, legal, and conceptual context. One of the most widespread theses is the idea that these churches were “granted” or “given” from one community to another—a claim which, upon careful analysis, proves to lack support in verifiable historical sources.
The historical overview presented in the previous chapters clearly shows that the development of Orthodox churches in the region is not the result of a single act, but of a long and complex process involving numerous political and social transformations. From the universal organization of Christianity during the Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire, to the institutionalization of national churches in the Middle Ages and the transformations during Ottoman rule, each historical phase has left visible traces on the structure and function of these institutions. In this sense, the affiliation of churches cannot be reduced to a linear narrative or a single legal act.
A fundamental problem in contemporary interpretations is the projection of modern concepts onto historical periods in which such concepts did not exist. The idea of national ownership over religious buildings is a product of the age of nationalism and cannot be retroactively applied to earlier periods. During early Christianity and the Middle Ages, ecclesiastical organization was based on administrative and theological structures, not on national identities. As John V. A. Fine emphasizes, the Church functioned as a universal institution that transcended ethnic divisions, making it impossible to link it exclusively to a single people.
Another element requiring critical reassessment is the use of history as a political instrument. In many cases, historical narratives have been constructed or selectively interpreted to support territorial or identity-based claims. This process often involves emphasizing certain elements of history while ignoring others, thereby creating a distorted picture of reality. As Mark Mazower notes, history in the Balkans has often been used to legitimize political projects, making a critical and ideologically independent approach essential.
From a legal perspective, the issue of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia must be analyzed in light of 20th-century developments and international law. The formalization of ownership and jurisdiction over these sites is the result of state-building processes and laws adopted in different historical periods. This means that their current status cannot be determined solely by distant history, but must also take into account contemporary legal realities and international agreements governing the protection of cultural heritage.
Another important issue is the distinction between cultural heritage and legal ownership. Orthodox churches in the region are both historical monuments and places of religious use. As such, they possess a value that goes beyond the interests of a single community and belongs to a broader human heritage. This dimension has also been emphasized by the inclusion of some of them on UNESCO lists, placing them in a global context and requiring special protection.
Within this framework, a balanced approach must consider both the right of religious communities to administer their sites and the responsibility of states to protect cultural heritage. This requires ongoing dialogue and a willingness to accept the complexity of history, rather than seeking simple and one-sided answers.
An important conclusion drawn from this analysis is that there is no straight historical line linking these churches directly to a single national identity. On the contrary, they are the result of a continuous interplay of influences and transformations reflecting the complex history of the region. This makes any absolute interpretation impossible and calls for an approach that accepts diversity and change as integral parts of historical reality.
In conclusion, the critical analysis of the issue of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia shows that contemporary debates are often based on misinterpretations or selective uses of history. A scholarly approach must overcome these limitations and offer an interpretation grounded in sources, context, and balanced analysis. Only in this way is it possible to achieve a fuller and more accurate understanding of this complex issue. Conclusion (MONOGRAPH)
This monograph has examined in a detailed and structured manner the history, development, and contemporary status of Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia, focusing on the interplay of historical, legal, and political factors that have shaped them over the centuries. The analysis presented in the previous chapters demonstrates that these institutions cannot be understood through a simplified or exclusivist approach, but require a broad and multidimensional interpretation.
From early Christianity within the framework of the Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire, to the institutionalization of churches during the Middle Ages and the profound transformations under Ottoman rule, a historical continuity can be observed—interrupted by numerous political and social changes. In this sense, Orthodox churches are the product of a long history of interactions rather than the result of a single act of ownership or transfer.
One of the main conclusions of this study is that the modern concept of national ownership over religious buildings cannot be retroactively applied to historical periods in which this concept did not exist. As demonstrated by the analyses of John V. A. Fine and Noel Malcolm, ecclesiastical structures in the Middle Ages and early modern periods were organized on religious and administrative bases, not on national identities in the contemporary sense.
The study also shows that the period of nationalism in the 19th and 20th centuries brought about a profound transformation in the role of churches, closely linking them to state-building projects and national identities. This process led to the formalization of jurisdiction over churches and the creation of national ecclesiastical structures, as in the case of the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Macedonian Orthodox Church.
In the contemporary period, with the dissolution of Yugoslavia and the emergence of new states in the Balkans, the issue of Orthodox churches has shifted into an international context, where state jurisdiction, religious authority, and the protection of cultural heritage by UNESCO intersect. This situation has created a fragile balance among the parties involved and has kept the issue open and sensitive.
Another important conclusion is that historical narratives regarding the affiliation of these churches have often been influenced by political and ideological factors, leading to selective interpretations of the past. This makes a critical and impartial approach essential—one that takes into account the complexity of historical sources and the multidimensional nature of developments in the region.
In this sense, Orthodox churches in Kosovo and North Macedonia should be understood as part of a shared historical and cultural heritage, which does not belong exclusively to a single community, but is the result of numerous interactions among peoples, cultures, and political systems over the centuries. This interpretation requires moving beyond narrow nationalist approaches and embracing a broader historical perspective.
In conclusion, this monograph argues that only through a balanced, source-based analysis—free from ideological interpretations—can a more accurate understanding of the role and status of Orthodox churches in the region be achieved. Such an understanding is essential not only for historiography, but also for intercultural dialogue and social stability in the Balkans.
